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Daily Dose Of Interesting Information

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#156. The Passport.


In order to travel safely while crossing the national boundaries, a person must have a Passport. It is an official document confirming the person’s identity and authorizes him to travel safely from one country to another. The modern passport is younger than 20th century but its origin dates back to thousands of years ago!

 Before the modern transport facilities like ship and air planes became available, very few people went on international and intercontinental tours. The diplomats and merchants, who took up such long journeys, carried tokens of recommendation from their Kings and Queens.

 Ancient Egyptian couriers were given a small oblong shield, called a “cartouche”, on which the Pharaoh’s name was inscribed. In the Middle East, a ring bearing the official seal was used as the passport by the travelers.

 Roman came closer to the modern form of passport by issuing a certificate of safe conduct throughout their empire a well as in other countries.

 In Medieval Europe, the person in authority gave a hand written letter to the travelers, as a means of identification and assurance of personal protection.

 Pilgrims who traveled across countries carried “Testimoniale” issued by the Church authorities. As recently as 1890, very few countries like Persia, Romania, Russia and Siberia required foreign traveler to possess some kind of passport.

 No nation required its citizens to have a passport to travel abroad. Until 1918 any one could enter U.S.A without a passport. After World War I, the number of countries issuing passports to its citizen and demanding one from the travelers from other countries, increased rapidly.

 Thus the passport became an authentic state document, confirming the identity and nationality of the bearer. To control the immigration, some countries insist on a Visa as well.

 Different styles and words were used by different countries until The League of Nations introduced a uniform format in 1921. The booklet form of today may take the form of a computer-readable- plastic card in future.

 But what ever be the form or size or shape, the passport will have the same force as the official rings and Cartouches of the past!

Visalakshi Ramani
 
#157. The First Car.




With the invention of the four cylinder engine and efficient fuels, motor driving has become fast, easy and enjoyable. Yet at one time the car was crawling at a speed less than the speed at which a person can walk!

 Nicholas Cugnot, a French artillery officer, was the world’s first motorist. His vehicle with three wheels appeared in 1769. It had a two cylinder engine driving its front wheel. It worked on steam. It could carry four persons and travel at two miles per hour!

 But the copper boiler placed in front of the car was both huge and heavy. It was so large and bulky that the driver could not steer the vehicle.

 On it maiden run, the car demolished a stone wall. Cugnot was not only the first motorist but also became the first motorist to crash his car!

Visalakshi Ramani
 
#158. The First Submarine.




The submarine which can travel unseen, under the water surface, is not something new invented during the World Wars in the 20th century. It was known at least 200 years before The World war I.

 The theory of under-water-travel had been known to the ancient Greeks. Archimedes and Aristotle had mentioned the attempts made in making diving bells.

 In 1578, William Bourne, a British author and mathematician designed the first submarine. It would be made of wood and have water-proof leather cover and be rowed by oarsmen.

 The pity is that the design remained on the drawing and the drawing remained on the board and never left it!

 In 1620, a Dutchman Cornelius van Drebble built a wooden boat and covered it with greased leather to make it water-tight. He successfully rowed it 15 feet under the surface of the River Thames.

 In 1776, David Bushnell, an American, built “Turtle”, the first submarine to be used as a weapon of war. In 1800, Robert Fulton produced “Nautilus”. He hoped to sell it to the French to be used in their war against England. But France was neither impressed nor interested!

 Most of these early crafts had very limited under water range. They would run out of steam or air or both! With the help of reliable electric motors, this problem was solved in the 1880s.

Visalakshi Ramani
 
#159. Steam Engine Tram.



When the steam engine tram was first introduced in San Francisco in the 1870s pandemonium prevailed! The horses would panic at the sight of these strange moving objects and trot wildly in mad frenzy, in any direction they fancy!

 These metal monsters breathing smoke and making strange noises were not like anything they had seen or known during their life time!

 For a while chaos was let loose in the city streets, as the horse drawn vehicles ran amuck whenever a tram came into sight! S. R. Mathewson, an inventor, solved this problem in an ingenious and simple way.

 He built the tram in the shape of a horse with a horse’s head and body. The tram could travel at eight miles per hour. It was gas fired, so that the smoke and strange noises were completely removed.

 This idea worked very well and soon order was restored in the streets.

Visalakshi Ramani
 
Dear Mrs. Visalakshi Ramani,

I salute you for the efforts taken by you for providing such a lot of interesting information.
Please continue.
Today I got a forwarded message to find the happenings on the year of birth,
Click your mouse here:
What happened in my birth year?
Regards,
Brahmanyan,
Bangalore.
 
Dear Mr. Brahmanyan,

An idle mind is Devil's workshop. My mind works ceaselessly. So it is better that I direct it towards something positive and good than try in

vain to arrest it and keep it under control!

Thank you for your kind appreciation. It works like a boosting tonic for me to go on with my chosen hobby.

Thank you for the interesting link.

with warmest regards,
Visalakshi Ramani. :pray2:
 
#160. Fountain Pen.





 The fountain pen was born out of sheer exasperation! In 1884, Lewis Edson Waterman, an insurance salesman, won an important contract from several rivals. When the client was about to sign in the contract, ink spattered on it. When Waterman went to get a new form, one of his rivals moved in and finished the sale.

 Waterman designed the first fountain pen—the forerunner of the modern fountain pens. He used the principle of capillary action. This is the principle by which the sap rises in the plants, defying gravitational attraction!

 In a piece of hard rubber, which linked the nib and the reservoir of ink, Waterman cut a hair-thin channel. This allowed the air into the ink chamber, keeping the pressures inside and outside, in balance. But when the nib was pressed on the paper, ink leaked from the reservoir through the nib, enabling person to write.

 At first ink fillers were used to fill the pen’s reservoir. Later flexible rubber sacks were introduced. These can suck in the ink when dipped into the bottle, after squeezing out the air inside them,

 Ancient Egyptians used a simple reed stem filled with ink and a copper nib. Roman used quill pens and also made bamboo pens which could carry a reservoir of ink.

 The word “fountain pen” was first used in 17th century, to denote that the pen had a reservoir of ink in it.

 Visalakshi Ramani
 
#161. Pneumatic Tyre.





Strange as it may seem, the pneumatic tyre was invented by a veterinary surgeon John Dunlop. He was a Scottish veterinary surgeon living in Ireland.

 The tyres of Dunlop’s son’s tricycle were getting damaged all the time! He wanted to protect the tyres from such damages due to the bad roads.

 Robert Thomson, a civil engineer, had already designed and patented in 1845, a hallow rubber tube which could be filled with air or horsehair.

 But Dunlop wanted something stronger and better than just the air filled tubes. In 1888, he made the first pneumatic tyre with a rubber outer casing and an inner tube which can be filled with air, through a valve.

 This was the first pneumatic tyre filled with air under pressure.

 The pneumatic tyres were used in the motor vehicles in 1895. Five years later, the Dunlop Rubber Company produced its first motor tyres.

 A truck as big as a house and carrying tons of things is supported by the almost weightless air in its tyres. Isn’t this a miracle made possible by science?

Visalakshi Ramani
 
#162. Water Closet.





John Harington-a godson of Queen Elizabeth I-was a failure as an amateur poet. But he was highly successful in inventing the first water closet, without which the modern life can not be even imagined!

 Harington built his house between 1584 and 1591 and installed his own invention, the first flushing lavatory, which he named as Ajax. He wrote a book about Ajax, describing about the tank and its working system.

 A pan had an opening at its bottom closed by a leather faced valve. A system of handles, levers and weight poured the water from the cistern and opened the valve.

 It was only in 1775; Alexander Cummings took a patent for his flushing closet which was very similar to Ajax.

 The main drawback in Ajax was the water seepage through the primitive valve. In 1777, Samuel Prosser used a ball valve to stop the seepage of water from the tank.

 Thanks to Harington, gone are the days of chamber pots and ash pits! Today, bathrooms are “the pride and joy” as well as “the new status symbol” of the rich and stylish people!

Visalakshi Ramani
 
#163. Safety Razor.





Shaving with a sharp razor was a tricky and dangerous business. It was even more so, for self-shavers. People would rather grow mustaches, whiskers and beards than get shaved!

 In 1828, Sheffield Company produced a razor with a guarded cutting edge. Shaving had become relatively easier and safer but the main problem still persisted–that of sharpening the razor’s hard edge for a smooth shave!

 A Boston salesman named King. C. Gillette had a brain storm in 1895. He wondered as to why not produce razors which were so cheap that people would rather throw them away after using them, than try to get them polished for reuse?

 He hit on the idea of using wafer thin slivers of steel, which could be held comfortably in a safety clamps and used. It took eight long years to solve the difficulties and start mass production.

 When the safety razors were first introduced in 1903, only 51 razors and 168 blades were sold. The following year the figures boomed to 90,000 razors and 1,24,00,000 blades!

 At last, the Shaving Revolution had caught on!

 Visalakshi Ramani
 
#164. Tin Opener.





Canned veal taken on Sir. William Parry’s Arctic expedition in 1824 had this instruction on its label. “Cut round on the top, near the outer edge, with a chisel and a hammer”

 This was how canned food was sold at that time. The only way of opening the can was to cut it open with a chisel and a hammer!

 As an alternative to the chisel and the hammer, Frenchman Angilbert proposed in 1833, to modify the can so that it could be opened by melting the solder around the lid.

 Bouvert, another French inventor, suggested that a steel wire be soldered between the lid and the body and which could be removed by applying heat.

 The first can opener was such an elaborate mechanism that the shopkeeper had to use it, before handing over the can to the customer.

 The introduction of tin plates in 1860s paved the way for smaller can opener and easier handling. The first can opener was the bull-head type. It had a steel blade attached to a cast iron handle. It is still being used today.

 Today there is a wide variety of can openers, in different fancy designs and many sizes.

 Visalakshi Ramani


 
#165. Street Light.



On 4th June 1807, the well known Pall Mall in London was aglow with the world’s first ever street lighting! The man behind the miracle was Frederick Winsor. The occasion was the birthday celebration of King George III. Very soon street lights became part of the daily life in all major cities of the world.

 Today it will be difficult for us to imagine a world without street lights. But in the past there was complete darkness once the night fell. The main source of light at night was the moon. But it rises and sets at different time everyday and the “new-moon-days” turn out to be “no-moon-days”.

 In the past, most people would stay indoors after dark. It was a challenge to find one’s way in the dark. Also the darkness provided complete cover to the deadly criminals. So dangerous was the darkness that the Roman writer Juvenal warned that it was extreme carelessness to go out for supper–without writing one’s will first!

 In 1416, all the householders were asked to hang lanterns outside their houses, in the winter, by the Lord Mayor of London. Louis XI of France issued similar orders in 1461, in the interest of the people’s safety.

 In U.S.A the main streets of New York were lit by whale-oil-lamps tacked on posts. The lighting was bleak and dim. With the invention of the gas lighting, things improved fast. By 1830, gas street lighting was adopted in New York and most of Europe.

 Independent of each other, Joseph Swan of England and Thomas Alva Edison of USA invented the filament electric lamp in 1878 and 1879 respectively. Using vacuum space, bulbs were made brighter and lasted longer.

 As soon as electric lamps appeared on the streets, the crime rates dropped dramatically. Yet electric lights superseded gas lamps very slowly. Only when driving the newly invented automobiles demanded brighter and better lighting, Sodium and Mercury lamps came into use in 1930s.

 Today we take for granted the efficient lighting system, flooding the streets at night time. Those who complain of the high cost of electricity will be “shocked” by this information. To get the same illumination, we will have to spend 500 times more on candles than on a fluorescent bulb!

 Come what may, the street lights have come to stay!

Visalakshi Ramani
 
#166. Vacuum Cleaner.





 The vacuum cleaner, a modern gadget, is supposed to be a recent invention. In fact Victorians had used a machine, very similar to our vacuum cleaner. In it, bellows were used to suck in the dirt and dust!

 Two people were needed to operate the gadget. One person had to work on the bellows and the other had to operate the nozzle to suck in the dust. A filter prevented the dust from getting blown out again. These machines were so well made that some of them are in good working condition even today!

 Hubert Booth watched a demonstration in which the dust was blown off instead of being sucked in. He tested and decided that sucking in the dust was definitely better than blowing it out. All he needed to introduce was a cloth filter, which will allow the air to go through, but trap the dust and dirt.

 Booth’s first practical machine was so huge that it had to be drawn by a horse! He was always having trouble with the police. His long hose became a “noisy-serpent”, terrorizing the horses, which bolted in sheer panic!

 But Booth’s pains were not entirely wasted. All the cylindrical vacuum cleaners we have today work on the Booth’s principle!

 Visalakshi Ramani

 
#167. Skyscraper.



A skyscraper is tall, continuously habitable building. No official definition or height requirements have been specified. Anything that stands above the surrounding buildings and changes the skyline is a skyscraper!

 The word skyscraper was a nautical term referring to a small triangular sail, set above the sky sail of a sailing ship. In the late 19th century, this term came to denote the multiple storied buildings being built in Chicago and New York city.

 The first skyscraper was built in Chicago called “The Home Insurance Building”. At that time, people were afraid of using elevators which were unsafe. Often people would fall off from them. Otis made the elevator safe for every one who used it.

 In those days, all the buildings were constructed with bricks, inside and outside. This made the construction very heavy, setting a limit to the number of floors the foundation can safely support.

 William Le Baron Jenney discovered a new way of making the construction stronger and yet much lighter. He used steel beams for the skeleton of the building. These would bear the weight of the building so that the heavy load-bearing masonry could be eliminated. Masonry was only to give a beautiful finish to the building. This came to be called as the Chicago skeleton form.

 The first skyscraper in Chicago was constructed in 1885 and demolished in 1931. It was ten stories high and 138 feet tall. The inner structure was made of steel and the outer structure was made of bricks.

 Today skyscrapers are being built with reinforced cement concrete.

Visalakshi Ramani
 
#168. Stethoscope.



Physicians as early as Hippocrates, used to listen to the heart and lung sounds, by placing their ears directly on the chest of the patient. They would use a handkerchief to avoid direct contact with the chest.

 One day in 1816, a French physician Laennec observed children playing with a long hollow stick. He was amazed to notice that the minute sounds made in one end of the stick were amplified and transmitted to the other end.

 Subsequently he had to listen to the chest of a young woman. Instead of placing his ear on her chest, he rolled several sheets of paper into a cylinder and listened through it. He was thrilled that he could hear the heart and lung sounds much better than ever before.

 He later used a wooden cylinder instead of the paper roll. He named his invention as Stethoscope derived from the Greek “Stethos” for chest and “skope” for examination. He made a portable version with three pieces which can be dismantled and reassembled quickly.

 Several improvements have been made on these simple cylinders subsequently. The first Binaural stethoscope with two ear pieces was made by George Cammann in 1852.

 In 1894, Robert Bowles introduced the first diaphragm based stethoscope. In 1940, doctors Sprague and Rappaport introduced the two sided chest piece to listen to sounds of different frequencies.

 In 1960s David Littmann redesigned the stethoscope with a single tube which had two internal channels and further refined the device.

 In the 1990s electronic stethoscopes were produced. The latest version released by 3M-Littmann has Blue tooth capability that transmits heart sounds to a computer for software analysis.

 We have come a very long way, but it all started with the modesty and curiosity of a French physician!

Visalakshi Ramani
 
# 169. Insects.

The word Insect is derived from the Latin Insectum. The insect's body is divided in to three sections viz the head, the thorax and the abdomen. It has three pairs of jointed legs, two antennae and two compound eyes.

A compound eye may consist of thousands of individual photoreceptor units. The image perceived is a combination of inputs from the numerous individual "eye units"- which are located on a convex surface, thus pointing in slightly different directions.

Compared with simple eyes, compound eyes possess a very large view angle, and can detect any fast movement. Now we know why it is so difficult to kill an insect by hitting it!http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_eye#cite_note-22

Insects form the most diverse group of animals. More than a million species are known to exist. More than half of all living organisms are insects. They exist in every kind of environment. But only very few are known to live in the ocean.

In this thread we will just look at some of the most weird and interesting insects- each one very special in some way or the other.
 
#170. The Largest Moth!



Atlas moth is the largest moth in the world. It is found in the tropical and subtropical forests of Southeast Asia. Its total wing area is 400 square centimeters or 65 square inches. Its wing span is 25 to 30 cm or 10 to 12 inches. Females are larger and heavier than males.

 It is named either after the Titan in Greek mythology or after the map-like patterns found on its wings. It is also known as the “snake’s head moth” since the apical extensions of the fore wings resemble the heads of snakes.

 This moth is brownish maroon in color. It has triangular diaphanous eyes, bordered in black, on all the four wings. This might be to ward off all the predators.

 Its body is hairy and small compared the large wings. Male Atlas is smaller in size, has more tapered wings and larger and bushier antennae.

 Neither the male nor the female have fully developed mouth parts. So they do not feed through out their adult lives of 1 to 2 weeks! They survive entirely on the fat reserves built during their caterpillar stage.

 Females release powerful pheromones and attract the males several kilometer away, downwind. They are unsteady fliers.

 In India Atlas moth is grown for its silk. Unlike the silk produced by the silk worms, Atlas moth silk is secreted as broken strands. This brown wool like silk Fagara is much more durable than silk.

 In Taiwan the Atlas moth cocoons are employed as purses!

Visalakshi Ramani
 
#171. The Heaviest Insect!



Goliath beetle is the heaviest insect in the world. It can be found in the tropical forests of Africa. A male beetle can be 60 to 110 m.m long and a female beetle 50 to 80 m.m.long.
The length and weight at the larvae stage is 150 m.m and 100 grams, respectively. The adult beetle weighs only half as much. Females vary from dark brown to silky white. The males are brown/black/white or black and white.

 The species Goliathus is native to Africa, primarily in the tropical regions. This beetle has a greater need for protein rich food than the others.The adult beetle feeds on the sap and fruits rich in sugar.The adult stage is mainly for reproduction.

 This beetle has a reinforced first pair of wings, which protects the second pair of wings and its abdomen.The second pair of wings is used for flying.

 All its legs end in a pair of sharp claws which provide the necessary grip for climbing trees and branches. Male beetle has a Y shaped horn on it head, useful in fighting for food, site and mate. The female does not have the horn. She has a wedge shaped head useful in burrowing while laying the eggs.

 Goliath beetles have strikingly beautiful patterns on their pronotum.

Visalakshi Ramani
 
#172. The most destructive!



An adult desert locust can eat its own weight of fresh food per day! A ton of locusts can devour a ton of fresh food in one day! This amount of food will be enough to feed 10 elephants or 25 camels or 2500 human beings.
Desert locusts threaten the agricultural production in Africa, Asia and the Middle East. Livelihood of one tenth of the world’s human population is affected by these pests.These locusts have caused significant loss of food and crops and has contributed largely to the famine in West Africa.

 Two factors which make desert locusts dangerous pests are: they can fly over large distances rapidly and they can reproduce equally rapidly giving rise to two to five generations per year. Desert locusts can fly with the wind and at the speed of the wind.They can cover 100 to 200 kilometers per day!

 A single swarm of desert locusts can cover up to 1200 sq.kilometers. Each sq.kilometer consists of 40 to 80 million locusts. The life span of these locusts is 3 to 6 months. The ratio of increase from one generation to the next is an alarming 10 to 16 times!

 It has been very difficult to control the damages caused by these desert locusts. Limited resources and the remoteness of the affected areas are two major factors which delay the monitoring and controlling activities.

Visalakshi Ramani
 
#173. The Weirdest Bug!



Thorn bugs have interested people because of their unusual appearances.Thorn bugs are tree hoppers and belong to the family of insects related to Cicadas and Leaf Hoppers.There are about 3200 known species of tree hoppers spread over in all continents, except Antarctica.
These bugs are known for their enlarged and ornate pronotum which resembles the thorns of the plants and aid in perfect camouflage.The pronotum grown into a hornlike extension and many weird shapes which are hard to be named.

 These bugs pierce the plant stems and feed on the sap. Excess of the sap gets concentrated to honey dew, which in turn attracts the ants. The ants protect the thorn bugs from the predators.

 It is important for the sap feeding bugs to dispose off the honey dew. Otherwise it can become infected with sooty molds. Ant mutual-ism helps and benefits both the bugs and the ants.

Visalakshi Ramani
 
#174. The Most Beautiful!


The Madagascan moth, popularly known as the Sunset Moth is the most beautiful insect in the world. It is a day flying moth and is a collector’s delight! The iridescent parts of the wings do not have any color pigments. The colors originate from an optical interference of light rays!

 The adult moth has a wing span of 7 to 9 centimeters. Some moths can have a wing span up to 11 centimeters. This moth is endemic to Madagascar. It can be seen all the year round, with a peak population between March and August and in lesser numbers between October and December.

 Sunset moth resembles the Swallow tailed butterflies in its tails and wings. This moth is black with iridescent colors red, blue and green as markings. It has a fringe of white scales on the wings which is wider at the hind wings. It has six tails. Pattern variation is very common. Some of the moths are asymmetrical! This may be due to the temperature shock suffered during the pupae stage.

 The colors originate from the coherent scattering and the interference of light by the micro structures of ribbon like scales covering the moth’s wings.The colors are produced by the conjunction of these two optical phenomenon.

 Unlike the other moths, this one flies during day time. Its bright radiant colors warn the predators of it toxicity. It holds both its wings vertically up over it back, while resting at night, similar to the butterflies.

 Their pretty wings were used to make jewelery in the Victorian Era. The Malagasy people believe that the soul of the dead ancestors appear in the form of these moths. To attack a moth means to attack one’s own ancestors!

Visalakshi Ramani
 
#175. The Longest Insect!



The Phasmatodea is an order of insects known as The Stick insects. “Phasma” in ancient Greek means an apparition or a phantom.This refers to the resemblance of the species to sticks or leaves.

 They are so well camouflaged that they can’t be spotted. Their body shape mimics the branches of their home and the insect resembles the twig on which it lives.

 There are over 3000 species known. The smallest one, Timema Cristinae found in North America, is a mere half an inch long. The giant stick insect of Borneo, the Phobaeticus Kirbyi, measures 13 inches from its head to its abdomen and an impressive 21 inches with it legs outstretched. Females are usually longer than males.

 Stick insects thrive in forests and grasslands. They feed on leaves. The are nocturnal and spend their days motionless under the plants.They feign death to thwart the predators.They will shed a limb to escape the enemy’s grasp. They may even swipe at the predator with its spine covered legs or emit a putrid smelling liquid.

 The largest insect in the prehistoric times was a dragon fly with a wing span of one meter. The biggest dragon fly found now has a wing span of 8 inches across.

Visalakshi Ramani
 
#176. The most dangerous!



Bull ants also known as Bulldog ants and soldier ants, are the most dangerous insects in the world!
Found on the Southern half of mainland Australia, the bull ants are very agile and have an exceptionally good vision for insects. They are fierce little creatures.

 The bull ant has a black head and a black abdomen. The rest of the body is reddish brown. Its mandibles are yellowish and longer than its square shaped head. The mandible has 13 teeth. The third, the fifth, the eighth and the eleventh teeth are longer than the rest of the teeth.

 The worker bull ant is 19 to 23 millimeters long while their queen is 24 to 26 millimeters long. The sting of the bull ant does not remain inside the body of the victim, as in the case of the honey bee. So it can sting repeatedly. The sting is located in its abdomen.

 The jaw of the bull ant is gentle unlike the jaws of many other ants. It feeds on other insects and honey dew from the other insects.

 These ants make an underground nest with elaborate tunnel system. A few soldiers stand guard at the entrance of the nest. This ant can carry seven times its own body weight. It communicates with touch and smell.

 It has two sets of jaws. The outer pair of jaws is for carrying things and digging. The inner pair is for chewing food. These ants help to keep the environment clean as they can finish off rotting plants and dead animals from a mouse to a elephant!

Visalakshi Ramani


 
#177. The fastest flying!



Horse fly, also known as forest fly and deer fly, is the fastest flying insect. It can be 30 to 60 m.m long. It weighs a mere 12 milligrams and can fly at the speed of 90 m.p.h!

 It is a pest since it inflicts bleeding wounds. It is noisy during flight. About 3000 species are known to exist . They are important pollinators in South Africa.

 The fly feeds on nectar and pollen. Female fly needs a meal of blood for reproduction. Females feed on the blood of mammals, birds, amphibians and reptiles.The male fly lacks the mouth parts to feed on blood.

 The bite of the fly is very painful. Unlike the other insects which puncture the skin with needle like organs, this fly has tiny serrated mandibles which they use to rip open the flesh of the victim.

 Blood loss is very common in animals where large flies are abundant. Some mammals may lose up to 300 m.l. of blood which may result in severe weakness and even death.

 The bites become itchy and cause swelling, if not treated. Horsefly wasps, sand wasps and birds are the predators. Horsefly bites can transfer diseases and parasites and spread Anthrax among cattle and sheep.

Visalakshi Ramani
 
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